Goddesses Of Abstract Qualities

Where abstract qualities are associated with goddesses, the goddess might appear as the embodiment of the quality, or she may be envisioned as bestowing it upon favored humans. 

Beauty, love, wisdom, and justice are commonly associated with goddesses, as is the control of fate or destiny. 

Some of these qualities are associated with an essen tialist ‘‘femininity, while others are more typically associated with ‘‘masculinity. 

In the realm of goddesses, expectations of the social roles typically occupied by women do not always hold true. 

Even within a culture, goddesses defy gender stereotypes, as with war goddesses found in imperial patriarchies like Rome (see Bellona). 

Beauty is the quality most commonly associated with goddesses. 

The beauty of some goddesses reflects their status as divinities of earth and represents the idea of natures loveliness. 

One such is the Tantric Bhuvanesvarı (see India), described as so beautiful that the god Shiva made himself a third eye, the better to enjoy her. 

At other times, beauty is connected with sovereignty. 

Queenly figures are flatteringly described as beautiful. 

Thus the Queen of Sheba, Bilqis (see Eastern Mediterranean) was described as possessing great beauty, although she was also said to have had the legs of a goat. 

Hera, Greek goddess of womens power, was renowned for her beauty, as was the Irish warrior queen Medb (see Celtic), who represented sovereignty over the land as well as womens sexuality. 

The Celtic goddess who appeared variously as Grainne, Iseult, and Gueneviere embodied the lands need for a vigorous king, with the ‘‘love triangle of their stories describing the replacement of an aging ruler with a younger one. 

Not surprisingly, beauty is often (although not invariably) connected with love. 

Such love could be generic, as with Greek Aphrodite or African Oshun, whose power infused the world of animals as well as humans. 

Other goddesses embody divine love, such as Indian Parvatı whose beauty was reserved for her consort Shiva. 

Finally, a goddesss desire could be directed only toward humans, as with Celtic Niamh, who sought lovers among human men, or the group of Indian spirits called Yaks˛ı who have sex with human men before eating them. 

More positively, Lakota Whope (see North America) formed the pattern of beauty after which human women were designed, so that they might attract vigorous mates. 

Love goddesses are not always benevolent. 

Many narratives emphasize betrayal and heartbreak (Celtic Bloduewedd and Deirdre, Hebrew Naamah, Greek Sirens). 

Although a beautiful goddess can be heartless, loyal lovers such as Indian Radha and Hebrew Sarah are found in mythology alongside destructive seducers like the Celtic Leanann Sidhe and Hebrew Lilith. 

Additionally, some myths warn of the difficulties that beauty can bring, as with Hindu Manasa (see India), whose beauty attracted the god Shiva, leading to her mutilation at his wifes hands. 

Unlike beauty, wisdom is not today necessarily connected with the archetypal femi nine. 

But in many cultures, goddesses were associated with this quality, which refers to a right ordering of society that aligns it with natural law. 

Thus Greek Athena and Metis, Roman Egeria and Providentia, and Hebrew Hokmah all connected the human world with nature through wise counsel. 

In some cases, as with Scandinavian Voluspa and Greek Python, wisdom was conveyed through oracular practices inspired by an all-seeing earth goddess. 

Roman Egeria pronounced the first laws of the city-state while in an oracular trance. 

In Ireland (see Celtic), goddesses of wisdom such as Boand gained knowledge through eating nuts that fall from a magical tree that con nects underworld, middle earth, and sky; thus their wisdom encompassed the universe. 

In most of these Irish narratives, the woman was specifically forbidden from seeking wisdom, but her decision to break that prohibition results in world-creating acts. 

Goddesses of justice, often pictured as mature or even elderly women, control the orderly structure of society. 

Thus Greek Themis, on whom oaths were sworn, repre sented the just underpinnings of civilization. 

Similarly, Hebrew Torah represented ‘‘the law that controlled and defined appropriate human behavior. 

The domain of Egyptian Maat (see Africa) extended beyond death, for she judged the souls right eousness. 

The Iroquois heroine Genetaska (see North America) brought justice and peace to her people. 

Some goddesses of justice were also goddesses of vengeance, demanding retribution for wrongdoing, as did Greek Erinyes and Nemesis. 

Goddesses also represent scholarship and learning. 

Because most societies have been oral rather than literate, such goddesses were associated with the transmission of wisdom through speech and stories (Scandinavian Saga and Edda, Indian Vac). 

The connection between memory, including historical memory, and the creation of art was emphasized in the Greek belief that Mnemosyne, goddess of memory, was mother to the Musae, goddesses of art. 

Goddesses like the Eastern Mediterranean Nisaba represented both the act of writing and the priestesses who employed it. 

Finally, one of the most common powers ascribed to goddesses is control over destiny. 

Individual fate goddesses are connected with midwifery. 

Such divinities as Baltic Laime˙, Egyptian Hathor, Slavic Dolya and Orisnitsi, and Finno-Ugric Madder-Akka appeared at a childs birth and predict its future life. 

Fate goddesses could be ancestral spirits (see Scandinavian Dıs) because heredity is one determinant of fate. 

Fate goddesses measured a persons life, like Hittite Wurusemu (see Eastern Mediterranean) or Greek Lachesis (see Moirae). 

Other fate goddesses, like the Roman Camenae and Carmenta who lived in springs, were associated with especially hal lowed places. 

~ Kiran Atma

You can learn more about Goddess Symbolism here.

Goddesses Of Fish And Insects

Those who live by fishing often honor a goddess who controls the sea life, such as the important Eskimo goddess Sedna (see Circumpolar), Celtic Nehalennia, or Finno-Ugric Avfruvva. 

In South America, Mama Cocha was the ‘‘mother of whales because she brought the massive mammals close to hunters. 

Polynesian Lorop (see Pacific Islands) lived under the earth, sending up food for her children in the form of fish. 

In other cases, the goddess was seen not as controlling the sea creatures but as one of them, as with Celtic Lı Ban, transformed into a salmon, and Eastern Mediterranean Atargatis, who swam in the pool of her temple as a trout. 

In India, the group of spirits called the D akinıs took on fish shapes to attend upon the goddess of death, Kalı. 

In Africa, the heroine Chichinguane joined the fish people because her human kin were unkind to her. 

Among insects, the industrious bee and the crafty spider are common goddess images. 

Bees, whose hives are centered on a queen and whose female workers produce honey, appear as companions of goddesses associated with social life. 

Lithuanian Aus t ˙eja was celebrated in an annual holiday dedicated to bees. 

Artemis of Ephesus, goddess of the warrior Amazons (see Greece), was depicted surrounded by bees; her priestesses were called Melissae, also a name used of bee Nymphs. 

Irish Gobnait (see Celtic) lived among bees that warned her of approaching danger. 

Spiders, with their ability to weave intricately architectural webs from their own bodies, appear as creatrix figures in several cultures. 

Hopi Kokyangwuti created human beings; Cherokee Kanene Ski Amai Yehi brought the sun to earth. 

Greek Athena was connected to spiders because she made the first one from an insultingly competitive human girl, Arachne. 

Finally, both butterflies (see Psyche, see Greece; Ix Chel, see Mesoamerica) and scorpions (South American Ituana, Egyptian Selkhet) appear as goddess images. 

~ Kiran Atma

You can learn more about Goddess Symbolism here.

Goddesses Of Reptiles, Birds, And Amphibians

Like animals, reptiles and birds appear frequently as images of feminine divinity. 

While these creatures might seem opposites, many early statues show them united, as we find in the unnamed bird-headed snake goddesses of central Europe, whose image may represent the cosmic reach of a goddess who ruled both earth and sky. 

The imagery survives into historical times as the Greek Gorgons, winged snake haired sisters of the goddess Medusa. 

Snake goddesses often represent rebirth or renewal, for as the snake sheds its skin, so the soul is reborn into another life. 

Egyptian Mafdet and Mertseger were con nected with both burial and the promise of an afterlife. 

In India, black-faced Kalı, ruler of death and transformation, is bedecked in writhing snakes. 

Other Indian goddesses associated with snakes include Manasa, who guards against snakebite and brings prosperity, and the snake-women called Naginıs, associated with water and the mon soon season. 

This connection of snakes with water is also found in Australia, where the rainbow serpent Julunggul (see also Kunapipi) lived in deep pools, from which she stirred herself at times of creation and of initiation ceremonies. 

Snakes could appear maternal, for snakes protected stored grain from encroaching vermin and thus preserved the familys health. 

Lithuanian Aspelenie was such a protector, as was Greek Athena. 

Even in nonagricultural societies, we find snake pro tectors, such as Siberian Irt (see Circumpolar), who protected the fecundity of rivers. 

Snakes appear as images of reproductive sex in the image of Chinese Nu¨wa, entwined with her serpent mate, while Indian Kadru offers an image of reproductive abundance with her clutch of a thousand eggs. 

Conversely, snakes could be fearsome and threatening. 

Some terrifying snakes were connected with magic and shape-shifting, such as Greek Hecate, Roman Angitia, Celtic Morrıgan, and Aztec Coatlicue. 

Perhaps as an extension of this power, serpent goddesses ruled sexuality, as we find with Celtic Melusine and Ezili-Freda of the African disapora. 

The snake Kundalinı, in Hindu India, symbolizes sexual power that rises through the snakelike spinal column linking the groin and head. 

Finally, reptilian goddesses appear as cosmic creatrixes. 

In Africa, the snake Aido Hwedo was present at creation and provided the pattern for the sinuous shape of mountains and rivers. 

Some serpents provided the material for the world from their own body, as did Aztec Cipactonal and Babylonian Tiaˆmat. 

Polynesian Walu tahanga suffered dismemberment but, once made whole again, provided fresh water and food to humanity. 

The snake goddess can appear as a dragon, especially in Asia where these imagi nary hybrids were a common mythic motif. 

Typically, dragons were associated with the oceans power. 

Japanese Benten either took the form of a dragon or rode one on the ocean waves. 

In Egypt, the goddess Meretseger was a snake with human head, or a snake with three heads, a form that stressed her otherworldly aspects. 

Other rep tiles appear as goddess images in regions where they are common, as with African Nyakae, a crocodile. 

Birds also appear frequently as goddess images. 

Pedamma-Mariamma (see India) was one of several creatrixes who took bird form; she laid an egg that contained the universe and the gods. 

Polynesian Tuli flew across the primal ocean, creating island homes for people as she did. 

Finnish Luonotar was not herself a bird, but provided a place for the cosmic eggs to be laid by a duck in primeval times. 

Sometimes the bird is of a specific species: the owl accompanied and represented Greek Athena, while Irish E tain took the form of a swan (see Celtic). 

In such cases, the birds qualities were associated with the goddess (wisdom and loyalty, respec tively). 

Observation of bird behavior led to the connection of the Greek tragic heroine Aedon with the loud-crying nightingale; the Celtic war goddess Badb with the carrion-eating crow; the Saami spring goddess Barbmo-Akka (see Finno-Ugric) with migrating waterbirds; and the loyal Celtic heroine Fionnuala with the similarly loyal swan. 

Greek Aphrodite was associated with several kinds of birds, including the goose and the sparrow, which were imagined as sexually vigorous. 

Occasionally the bird was not the goddess but her mate. 

The goddess of sexuality in the African diaspora, Oshun, is associated with the peacock, the male of which preens its lavish tail to attract a mate. 

Eskimo Sedna (see Circumpolar) was mated to a sea bird, but grew tired of living on scraps of fish that he provided. 

In Greek mythology, the sky god Zeus turned himself into a bird in order to assault goddesses and Nymphs. 

Thus Hera was associated with the quail, for Zeus disguised himself as one in order to gain access to Heras lap, while Leda was associated with the swan, in which form Zeus raped her, as he did the goddess of vengeance, Nemesis. 

Frigg, the Scandinavian all-mother, lived in a sky palace to which she ascended on hawks wings. 

Birds provided a disguise for shape-shifted goddesses such as Russian Baba Yaga (see Slavic) and Irish Morrıgan (see Celtic). 

Nemain, a Celtic war goddess, flew over the battlefield like a crow to observe the slain, as did the Scandina vian Valkyries. 

Birdsong figures in goddess imagery both as a positive image of beauty (Thai Kinnarı, see Southeast Asia) and as a threatening one of loss of self (Greek Sirens). 

In addition to the earthbound serpent and the airy bird, we find goddesses in the form of amphibians, which live in water as juveniles and, after undergoing metamor phosis, breathe air as adults. 

The most common amphibian image of the goddess is the frog or toad, often used as an image of the birthing creatrix because its bent legged shape looks like a woman squatting in labor. 

This connection of frogs with birth was found in Egypt, where Hekt, a woman with a frogs head, was a midwife. 

Frogs and toads were also widely associated with weather. 

The Australian frog goddess Quork-Quork was the mother of rain, thunder, and lightning. 

Yang Sri, the toad goddess of Vietnam, controlled the weather, as did the Baltic weather witch Ragana. 

Scandinavian Holle hid in a deep well disguised as a frog. 

Finally, in a few instances, we find a connection between frogs and fire, notably in South America, where the frog goddess Nayobo made fire by vomiting, while another frog goddess of the region, Kibero, brought fire to humanity. 

~ Kiran Atma

You can learn more about Goddess Symbolism here.

Goddesses Of Vegetation

 

In some areas, vegetation is connected with a male god. 

In Southeast Europe, for in stance, the mountain goddess Cybele took the tree god Attis for her lover. 

In spring rit uals in the eastern Mediterranean, women planted gardens of Adonis, dedicated to the young lover of Greek Aphrodite who was killed in his prime, as the seedlings of the Adonis gardens were to die after a brief period of growth. 

The connection of male divinity with vegetation has been described as the background for the image of the Christian savior Christ, meeting his death upon a dead tree. 

Most cultures have connected plants with goddesses. 

Such goddesses were typically associated with agriculture and represented the abundant food produced by the fertile fields. 

Such vegetation goddesses can be forms of the earth mother (see above), for goddesses embodied in the fertile soil and those found in plants that spring from that soil can be difficult to distinguish, if indeed such a distinction was made by the god desss followers. 

Goddesses of vegetation can be embodied in plants (African Abuk, who was a bean; Southeast Asian Hainuwele, who turned into a date-palm) or may tend them as gardeners (Hawaiian Hiiaka, African Mbokomu, South American Nugkui). 

A cultures vegetation goddess reveals its mainstay foods, for which reason many goddesses are connected with grains rather than, for instance, leafy greens that do not store well and are available for only part of the year. 

In the eastern Mediterranean, Ninlil and her mother Ninshebargunu ruled barley and other nourishing seeds. 

In Rome, we find Ceres, from whose name we derive a term for grains. 

Similarly, Greek Demeter and Slavic Z˘ emyna are connected with wheat and rye and barley, called ‘‘corn in old texts that use the term ‘‘maize for the yellow grain from the Americas. 

In India and southeast Asia, goddesses were associated with the mainstay of the daily meal, rice, most famously embodied in the Hindu goddess of wealth, Laks˛mı, who appears in Bali and nearby islands as the primary goddess Dewi Shri. 

A similar goddess was Basmoti, whose name we still use for a type of rice; in central India, Astangi Devı brought humans not only rice but bamboo, with its edible shoots. 

In Japan, the rice goddess was the fox-woman Inari, a divinity who is still very popular today. 

In central and north America, the goddess of agricultural plenty was connected with maize or corn; Cherokee Selu and Pawnee Uti Hiata are among the ‘‘corn moth ers of the Americas. 

In South America, where the potato was a mainstay of life, the goddess of abundance was Pachamama. 

In the Pacific, the goddess Pani was associ ated with yams, an important food plant. 

Goddesses of vegetation could be divinities of birth as well, not only because farm ing reproduces plants but because sufficient food is necessary for women to become pregnant. 

In Babylonia, the birth goddess Bau derives her name from a term meaning ‘‘giver of vegetables (see Eastern Mediterranean). 

In Thailand, the primary goddess is Mae Phosop, deity of rice who appears as a pregnant woman when the grains swell to maturity and who gives birth to the new crops (see India). 

In Australia, Imberom bera walked around creating life by giving birth and forming plants (see Mutjingga). 

Not only were vegetation goddesses associated with birth; they were also connected with death. 

In the cycle of the crops, farmers saw their own lives: flourishing in youth, reaching productive adulthood, finally dying. 

This identification was reflected in myth. 

African Asase, who claimed the dead, was primarily a goddess of vegetation. 

Nambi, also from Africa, stole seeds to bring food plants to earth, but unwittingly opened the way for death to descend from the heavens. 

In Egypt, the tree-living death goddess Ament offered food to the newly dead, the tasting of which kept them from returning to life. 

Yet even in death, vegetation goddesses promise new life. 

Egyptian Hekt was embodied in grain, which seems to ‘‘die before it sprouts. 

Eating the fruit of Chinese Xiwang Mus magical peach tree transformed the deceased into an immortal. 

Flowers and fruit both serve as goddess images. 

Often the goddesses are depicted, respectively, as younger and older, with a nubile goddess envisioned as a deity of flow ers while a more mature goddess is the resulting fruit. 

Among important flower god desses we find Romes Flora, divinity of prostitutes and sexuality; Bloduewedd in Wales (see Celtic), a heroine made completely of flowers; Greek Persephone (Roman Proserpina), a maiden goddess raped while picking crocuses; and the Aztec Xochi quetzel, the deity embodied in the marigold. 

In India, the Apsaras were bedecked with flower garlands that, if offered to a human, indicated willingness to engage in intercourse. 

In Russia (see Slavic), a young woman embodying Berehinia wore a crown of red flowers to represent the goddess. 

As flowers are the genitalia of plants, they often symbolize the goddesss female organs. 

The fruit that results from pollination of flowers becomes the symbol of mature god desses. 

The most familiar is the apple associated withEve, ancestral mother of humanity (see Eastern Mediterranean). 

The peach offered by Chinese Xiwang Mu brought immortality to the eater. 

A pomegranate represented Hera, Greek goddess of womans power. 

The apple was connected with Lithuanian Saule˙ (see Baltic). 

Among goddesses of fruit we find several connected to intoxication, for sugary fruit naturally ferments into wine. 

Sumerian Nikasi was embodied in strong grapevines (see Eastern Mediterranean). 

African O ya was connected with palm wine; Greek Oeno, with wine from grapes. 

The tree provided an image of the goddess as provider of food, with fruit trees espe cially regarded as feminine. 

In Scandinavia, where fruit varieties were limited, Idunn was associated only with apples, while in Japan, Kono-Hana-Sakuya-Hime and Yaya-Zakura were goddesses of the cherry tree and Rafu-Sen of the plum. 

Greek Carya ruled the walnut, Irish Buan the hazelnut (see Celtic), Roman Rumina the fig. 

Even trees that do not bear edible fruit or nuts had goddess associations. 

Many trees were described as inhabited by feminine spirits like Greek Dryads, tree-living Nymphs who died when their tree died. 

Similarly, Scandinavians envisioned the for ests of northern Europe as inhabited by Askefruer, ash-tree women. 

The Greeks con nected goddesses with specific tree species, as with the multiple Heliaces (poplar) and Meliae (ash), as well as the singular Daphne (laurel) and Carya (walnut). 

Tree cults are attested in Greek religion, including one centered on Helen, who was ritually hung from a tree in ancient times. 

Such goddesses could appear as ancestral figures; among the Scandinavians, Embla was said to have been the primordial woman, born of an ash tree. 

Trees were the preeminent image of the Hebrew goddess Asherah, whose image was carved from a wooden plank. 

The Arabic goddess Uzza was also honored in groves of trees (see Eastern Mediterranean for both). 

~ Kiran Atma

You can learn more about Goddess Symbolism here.

Goddesses Of Water

 

After earth, the symbol most commonly associated with goddesses is water, both as the fresh water of rivers and streams, and as the oceans salty waves. 

The gendering of water as feminine is not invariable, however. 

Some mythologies describe the oceans as masculine. 

The Greeks had a sea god, Poseidon, while a similar figure among the Irish was Manannan mac Lir. 

In both cases, the ocean was defined as masculine, as dis tinguished from fresh water, which was feminine. 

Among the Greeks, who despite see ing the ocean as masculine pictured its waves as the innumerable feminine Oceanids, we find the freshwater Nymphs called the Nereids. 

The Irish knew many river god desses such as Sınann, Berba, and Boand, while outside Ireland we find dozens of Celtic water goddesses including Abnoba, Aveta, Coventina, Natosuelta, and Sabrina. 

This salt and fresh water distinction, however, is not universal. 

Some goddesses were described as ruling the oceans, including the Scandinavian Ran who ruled the northern sea, and Chermiss Bu¨t aba and Finnic Mere-Ama (see Finno-Ugric), whose domains were similarly in the arctic waters. 

Hebrew Miriam (see Eastern Mediterra nean) was connected with the ‘‘bitter waters or the salty seas, although a freshwater stream created by her brother Moses also bore her name. 

The connection between the oceans salt water and female fertility is emphasized in the Hindu myth of Prakrti (see India), whose amniotic fluid became the oceans after she gave birth to the gods. 

In many cultures, an ocean goddess controls the fish and mammals that live in her waters and on which humans depend for food. 

An important example of such a figure is Inuit Sedna (see Circumpolar) who, thrown into the water as a sacrifice, thereafter receives sacrifices herself as the ‘‘great food-dish. 

Finnish Vellamo (see Finno Ugric), too, is an ocean goddess who determines how many fish humans can take from her waters, taking advice from her many daughters, the waves of the sea. 

Similarly, the South American sea-mother Mama Cocha brings fish and sea-mammals close to peo ple so that they can be harvested for food. 

Fishermen often fall under the rulership of ocean goddesses, who like Ma-tsu (see China) protects them when they are faring on the waves. 

In some cases, the oceanic goddess is depicted as a primordial mother or creatrix, one from whose depths life was born, as with Babylonian Tiaˆmat (see Eastern Mediterranean). 

Finno-Ugric Luonotar, while not the ocean itself, is intimately con nected with it, having spent much of eternity floating on cosmic waters. 

The sky woman of the American Iroquois, Ataensic, floated on the oceans waters until earth was created (see North America). 

Wherever the waters of the Wintu goddess Mem Loimis fell, the earth grew fertile, while areas not endowed with her watery gift were left as desert (see North America). 

Ocean goddesses could be charming and delightful. 

Lithuanian Amberella tossed pieces of amber to the shore, to reward those who honored her, and Greek Aphrodite was ravishingly beautiful even when fickle. 

But they could also be dangerous. 

Mer maids and sirens, which appear in many mythologies as ocean-dwelling women of great beauty, are threatening water divinities who lure sailors to their death. 

Such fig ures guarded the boundaries between water and land, like Siberian Sug Eezi (see Circumpolar) who like other mermaids had long hair that mimicked the rippling streams that she inhabited. 

Celtic Korrigans danced each night, drawing victims to themselves and drowning them. 

Greek Aphrodite was born of the oceans waves and, although beautiful, could also be pitiless, for love is never without possible threat of loss. 

In China, the primary goddess Xiwang Mu controlled the worlds waters and was invoked when floods threatened, showing that the activities of such cosmic god desses could be damaging to humanity were she not ritually appeased. 

Thus ocean goddesses represent both creative possibility and danger. 

Goddesses associated with fresh water are powers of fertility. 

Such watershed god desses can be seen as divinities of the land as well as the rivers that drain it. 

In India, many rivers are imagined as goddesses of earthly abundance, none more so than the Ganges, whose powerful river drains much of the subcontinent and is seen as the actual body of the goddess Gan ga. 

In Egypt, where the annual inundation of the land by the river Nile was typically associated with the god Osiris, we find the water goddess Anu ket representing the connection between water and the lands increased fertility. 

In Africa, major rivers were goddesses (Yemaja, Oshun, O ya) who were sometimes in conflict with each other over their shared consort. 

Such river goddesses were typically maternal forces, providing their human children with sustenance. 

A similar goddess in Russia, Mokosh (see Slavic), was a motherly figure whose presence was most actively felt in budding springtime. 

Smaller water sources such as springs and creeks could be seen as threatening rather than helpful. 

In Slavic lands, supernatural women, once human, haunted quick-flowing streams. 

Deprived by early death of a chance to have children, the Rusalki drowned sweet babies or fertile young people. 

The Scandinavian Nixies were similarly danger ous. 

In tribal India, the Nippong especially targeted young pregnant women, whom they caused to miscarry. 

Such spirits were often most active in spring and may re present the possibility of flash floods. 

Tribal Indian Bai Tanki, another destructive river goddess, spreads disease through her water—a mythic narrative with a firm basis in science, for polluted water can indeed spread disease. 

Fountains and bedrock springs were often seen as locations of inspiration because of the goddesses who inhabited them. 

The Greek Musae are still known as an image of the force that causes artists to create. 

In India, the river goddess Sarasvatı was the source of inspiration as well as a cosmic creatrix. 

Such inspiration could be legal and organizational as well as artistic. 

Among the Roman water nymphs called the Camenae was Egeria, who oracularly dictated the first laws of Rome and whose name is still used to describe a wise woman advisor. 

Freshwater goddesses, endowed with the gift of seeing the future, could help those who wished to practice the oracular arts. 

Babylonian Nanshe (see Eastern Mediterra nean) was a fortune-tellers goddess celebrated at waterborne festivals. 

Prophecy was not always seen as a gift; the Greek water Nymph Telphusa killed anyone who drank her prophetic waters. 

Yet most often, prophecy was a positive act, connected with heal ing because the ill and infirm turn to oracles in hopes of receiving predictions of pos itive change. 

So common was the connection between springs and healing among the Celts that the names of many of their goddesses have been lost, for they were renamed ‘‘Minerva Medici after the Roman goddess of healing, during Imperial occupation. 

Healing was a common part of the domain of the freshwater goddess, a tradition that continues today with the prayerful use of water from the well at Lourdes, France, dedicated to the virgin Mary (see Eastern Mediterranean). 

In Africa, we find the lake goddess Idemili and the water spirit Mammywata, both of whom offered healing to their worshipers. 

The Hindu goddess Narmada (see India) was especially powerful against snakebite, while the healing offered by Gan ga extended beyond this life, for those who died in her waters were freed from the cycle of rebirth. 

Some important goddesses controlled all water, whether found in rivers or in oceans. 

Anahita, one of the most important Persian divinities (see Eastern Mediterra nean), ruled everything fluid in the universe, even those of the human body. 

Similarly, among the Lithuanians (see Baltic), the water mother Jurat˙e controlled all the earths waters. 

Aztec Chalchihuitlicue (see Mesoamerican) could be found in lakes, rivers, and the ocean. 

Finally, some goddesses could be described as divinities of what science calls the water cycle, for they ruled the rain that falls on the land, the bodies of water (above ground and underground) that gather the rain and return it to the ocean, and the ocean where clouds are born to return water to the land. 

Such goddesses connect air and water like the African sky woman Andriana who descended to earth to become a water goddess. 

Rainbows, those bridges between sky and earth formed by water vapor, often symbolize such goddesses. 

In Australia, the primal serpent Julunggul ruled ocean, rivers (especially waterfalls), and rain; she was embodied in the rainbow. 

A similar rainbow-water-snake spirit found in Haiti was Aida Wedo (see African Diaspora). 

~ Kiran Atma

You can learn more about Goddess Symbolism here.

Goddesses Of The Earth

 

The most common symbol for goddesses is the earth, although it can be argued that the symbolism goes the other way around: that goddesses symbolize earth, both as soil and as planet. 

Whichever came first, the connection of goddess and earth is found through out the world. 

It is not, however, invariable. The binary opposition of male/sky and female/earth is sometimes reversed. 

Earth gods are found in some cultures, often asso ciated with sky goddesses, a subject that has not been sufficiently studied to determine its frequency. 

Despite exceptions, however, earth and goddess are connected in many cultures, so much so that goddesses whose symbolism was originally other evolve into earth goddesses over time. 

In some cases, however, writers unthinkingly and inap propriately use the term ‘‘earth goddess or ‘‘earth mother where the divinity in question is a celestial or cosmic figure. 

Earth goddesses are often described as creating the earth (see also Creatrix, below); such goddesses can be described as self-creating. 

In Korea, MaGo created the world by singing, while in Greece, the earth goddess Eurynome created the universe through dance. 

Some earth goddesses do not create the land but populate it by creating humans and animals. 

African Butan was the first creation of the double-sexed primary god. 

She then populated the world without need of mate. 

Earth goddesses often create vegetation from their bodies, the rich soil. 

Because humans and animals require vegetation to survive, earth goddesses are envisioned as benevolent and generous. 

In some cases, the connection between earth and nourish ment is made clear, as with Indian Basmoti who created rice by vomiting it forth. 

This generosity can be seen in the name of the early Greek earth goddess Pandora, ‘‘all giver, or Danish Gefjion, ‘‘gift (see Scandinavia). 

Such images tend to come from cultures that practice agriculture. 

Where people live from fishing and hunting, the goddess of abundance is more typically connected with wildlife (see Animals, below). 

Many earth goddesses are described as maternal forces, providing for the creatures of earth as a good mother provides for her children. 

Some myths put special emphasis on the maternal feelings of the goddess, as in the Greek story of Demeter and her lost daughter Persephone. 

Baltic Zˇ emyna appeared at the birth of every child, and Sibe rian Umay (see Circumpolar, Umaj) was the placenta that feeds the fetus as the earth feeds its creatures. 

Other myths connect goddesses of earth with human fecundity. 

Estonian Ma-Emma (see Finno-Ugric) was the fertile, endlessly pregnant earth, and as such controlled the wombs of young women, permitting them to bear children suc cessfully. 

The Roman earth goddess Anna Perenna responded to the sexual activities of humans by growing more fertile. 

Goddesses like Scandinavian Fulla and Roman Ops, from whose names the En glish words ‘‘full and ‘‘opulent derive, represent both bountiful vegetation and the abundant life expressed in human procreation. 

African goddess Aje was similarly con nected with abundance of all sorts, including food, money, and beloved children. 

She created the soil that bears crops by scratching at it in primordial times, when it was hard as rock and she wore the body of a chicken. 

Hindu Laks˛mı, often represented by coins and bills, began as an earth goddess whose abundance created monetary wealth. 

As an esoteric symbol, she represents spiritual wealth as well. 

The earth has rarely been seen as a solitary divinity. 

Rather, she is envisioned as part of a divine family that includes gods as well as other goddesses. 

At times, the earth was part of a family headed by the maternal sun, as with Finno-Ugric earth goddess Mu kilˇsin-Mumi, whose sister was the sun, or Baltic Z˘ emyna, who was the suns daugh ter. 

In other cases, we find the earth as mother of a clan that includes goddesses of cul ture and of food; the Pawnee earth divinity was Atira (see Native American), whose daughter was the corn goddess. 

Often, the earth mother was the mate of a sky god. 

In Polynesia, the earth goddess Papa lay in perpetual intercourse with her sky husband and had to be forcibly sepa rated from him in order for other life to emerge. 

In Greek myth, earth mother Gaia birthed many children after mating with the sky god but finally grew weary of his end less sexual demands. 

She convinced one of her sons to castrate him, thus ending their endless embrace, after which she gave birth parthenogenetically. 

The Zun˜i goddess Awitelin Tsita lay in continual intercourse with the sky until she conceived the human race. 

Her husband, the sky, solicitously attended upon Maka of the Lakota as she cre ated humanity (see Native American for both). 

Although typically the earth goddess hungered for intercourse, a few earth god desses were unwilling sexual partners. 

Hindu Tarı (see India) refused the solicitations of the sun god, whereupon he created human women to serve his sexual needs. 

Even when the goddess is energetically sexual, many myths describe tensions among the divine family, with the earth mother siding with her children against her spouse. 

The earth goddess is never described in fearsome or negative terms, although she can be seen as a strict keeper of order, as was the case with Greek Themis, who represented the force of law. 

Judgmental goddesses sustain the natural laws and punish those who break them. 

Such goddesses could be punitive, as when the Mongol earth goddess Etugen brought about earthquakes to purify the land of peoples wrongdoing. 

Hindu P rthivi (see India) also showed her displeasure at human failing by shaking fiercely, as did South American Pachamama. 

Because earth goddesses serve as all-seeing witnesses to what transpires on their surface, people turned to them when oaths were required. 

Slavic people held a handful of soil while swearing by Zˇ emyna (see Slavic), and Romans pointed downward toward the earth goddess Tellus when they made a pledge. 

African Ala was a force of social order, for she witnessed all promises and knew instantly when one was bro ken because there was nowhere on earth where one could hide from her. 

Also in Africa, followers of Oddudua devote themselves to maintenance of social order. 

Greek Demeter was known as the lawgiver (‘‘Thesmophoros), for she created the order of the ideal human society as she did for the rest of nature. 

The connection between earth and human society can be detected in the name of the Scandinavian earth goddess Fjo¨rgynn, from which we derive both the words ‘‘earth and ‘‘hearth. 

Just as she could see anything that happened on her surface, the earth goddess could see into the future. 

Thus she represented the force of destiny. 

Iranian A rmaiti (see Eastern Mediterranean) ruled both reproduction and fate, which in many cultures were seen as inextricably linked. 

As the overseer of birth, the goddess was in the position to know the fate of each newborn. 

Just as often, earth goddesses are connected to death, especially in cultures where the dead were entombed within the earth; the dark skin of Russian Mokosh (see Slavic) was not only the color of fertility but of the endless night of death. 

The earth goddess was literally the earth beneath our feet. 

Siberian Mou-Njami had soil for skin and green grass for hair. 

In that culture, digging into the earth was forbid den, because to do so would be to injure the goddess. 

Southeast Asian Ponniyamman is depicted as a rock head, sitting on the earth, which forms her body. 

Some goddesses occupy specific and delimited areas of land—for example, mountains. 

One of the worlds most famous peaks is named for the Hindu goddess Annapur˛na (see India). 

Sometimes a single peak is designated as the embodiment or residence of the goddess, as in the Irish triad Bandba, Fodla, and E riu, or the Native American goddess Tacoma of the mountain that bears her name. 

In other cases, goddesses occupied entire mountain ranges, such as Celtic Echtghe, after whom low hills in County Clare are named. 

Occasionally the goddesss mountain is an imaginary one; Xiwang Mu of China was envisioned as occupying the supernatural Jade Mountain. 

Volcanoes were commonly imagined as goddesses, but connected with fire rather than earth (see Fire, below). 

Goddesses inhabited and embodied forests. 

Because these forests were important sources of wild food, Celtic Ardwinna and Greek Artemis were connected with hunt ing, while Finno-Ugric Vir-Azer-Ava was associated with foraging for berries and mushrooms. 

But dense forests could also be dangerous. 

Thus threatening figures were described as ready to kidnap people who lost their way in the woods, like the Scandi navian Skogsnufvar (see Buschfrauen) who froze people to death for wandering in her domain. 

Mountain and forest goddesses can be seen as specialized forms of the earth goddess. 

Another category was the territorial goddess who represents not the entire planet but the region occupied by a single group. 

The alternative name of the Roman Tellus was Italia, a name also given to the long mountainous peninsula she ruled. 

In India, multiple goddesses called by the generic Gramadevata represent the land on which a villages people depended. 

In Ireland, land goddesses often appear as god desses of the watershed, showing the necessary connection of earth and water for fer tility (see Celtic Aveta, Sequana, Berba, Boand, Sınann). 

Given the frequency of association of goddess and earth, it is not uncommon to find earth goddesses also iden tified as goddesses of water, abundance, and creation. 

~ Kiran Atma

You can learn more about Goddess Symbolism here.

Goddesses Of The Sky

 

The earths blue atmosphere rarely appears in mythology as divine, although the sky as an image of the upper world or heavens is found in many cultures, especially those that posit a multistory universe inhabited by different beings at different levels. 

Although often gendered as masculine, the heavens also appear in female form, as with the Roman goddess Diana, originally a goddess of the open sky who was later limited to the moon, and Maori Mahora-nui-a-rangi (see Pacific Islands), a heavenly creatrix. 

Such sky divinities can be connected with boundlessness (Indian Adıtı), because the sky seems to have no beginning nor ending. 

Occasionally such goddesses represented the entire cosmos, earth and sky together (Eastern Mediterranean Tanit). 

Because of the vastness of the sky, it was sometimes depicted as dual-sexed, as with African So (see Mawu), who was considered a goddess despite having a masculine aspect. 

Although sky goddesses often have little personality and seem remote from human affections, the Egyptian sky goddess Nut was the mother to whom the dead returned and, as such, was painted across the inside lid of coffins, stretching out her starry body. 

She was also a lusty goddess who had to be forcibly separated from her lover, the earth god. 

The need to separate earth and sky, who remain otherwise in unending inter course, is a common mythic tale, although most of the sky divinities are male, the earth female. 

The skys light, especially at dawn, was often pictured as a voluptuous and promis cuous goddess (Roman Aurora, Greek Eos, Indian Usas). 

The lustful goddess is more typically pictured as the morning and evening star. 

However, the goddess as a creator of light, and as light itself, is found in many cultures. 

Some earth goddesses and divine ancestors appear as women who originally lived in the sky but descended to the earths surface, often because of love for an earthly man. 

Thus African Nambi fled her sky home, bringing the food that humanity needed to survive down with her. 

Andriambavirano of Madagascar (see Africa, Andriana) similarly became enamored of a human male, but her original descent was motivated by boredom and curiosity about the earth. 

Finally, some figures are described as living in the sky but are not otherwise specifically associated with the heavens (see African Mbokomu and Nambi; Chinese Tai-hsu¨an Nu¨; Circumpolar Kadlu.) 

~ Kiran Atma

You can learn more about Goddess Symbolism here.

Goddess Worship In Italy

The spirit and inspiration of the Divine Female permeate the whole fabric of Italy, whether it is in a quiet city square or a bustling museum. Her obelisks in Rome's Saint Peter's Square at the Vatican symbolize the site of historic lyceums, or institutions for studying Goddess mysteries. Her statues are still present at Malta's megalithic temple complexes, which are located just south of Sicily. 

You may discover sculptures, objects, and fabrics showing her from Paleolithic to modern times by entering the Louvre in Paris or museums in Turin, London, Naples, or Ankara. Amazing cave paintings from Lascaux, France, from 15,000 BCE depict her. She may also be seen in palm-sized items that are touching, like the Venus of Willendorf (25,000 BCE), which was discovered in Austria. 

In Ostia Antica, there is a temple or sacellum called Bellona that is devoted to the Italic goddess Bellona, who may have been combined with Magna Mater.

The deep beauty and spirit of the Goddess continue to inspire and be suggested by tapestries like La Dame a la Licorne, The Lady and the Unicorn, which is housed at the Cluny Museum in France. The adventurous pilgrim traveling to holy places throughout Europe will encounter all of this. 

Goddess Worship In Pompeii.

The partly discovered city of Pompeii, which was left behind when Mount Vesuvius erupted in 79 CE, offers a rare window into a history that has been frozen in time. Travelers may still read graffiti and ads on walls and floors in Pompeii, as well as enjoy mosaic tile flooring and look out for carriage wheel ruts on the stone pavement. 

One might imagine hearing and smelling the activity of long ago. In addition to stadiums, brothels, temples, and private residences, there are villas to discover. Even some of the impoverished people's bodies who perished in the volcanic explosion have been preserved for interested people to see. One of the most well-preserved buildings in this enormous metropolis is the Temple of Isis, which stands out as the ideal illustration of Isis worship as it developed outside of Egypt and into the Greco-Roman world. 

All around the Mediterranean area and Asia Minor, immigrants, sailors, warriors, merchants, and her priesthood of men and women sung Isis' praises. She mixed with the native deities in various other nations. In reality, the worship of Isis was once fiercely competitive with that of other mystery religions, including the cult of Mithras and young Christianity, due to her popularity across the known globe. 

If Western civilization might have evolved on a matriarchal foundation, Isis "may have been too tenacious a mistress to dethrone," claims R. E. Witt in Isis in the Ancient World. Some elements of Isis worship did alter as it spread outside of Egypt. 

Instead of the exotic and green-hued Osiris, Isis was now married to the Ptolemaic hybrid deity Serapis. Serapis was an Egyptian version of Osiris-Apis that was Hellenized, avoiding the animal head representations of Egypt that the Greeks and Romans misunderstood. 

They were unaware that the powers of the animals they mirrored were inherent in these deities. Harpocrates, Anubis, and Horus all traveled with Isis when she left Egypt. (In the Vatican Museum, there is an intriguing statue of a Hellenized Anubis that evokes images of Scooby Do.) 

Isis sometimes had her own temple or often shared a temple with a local goddess, although many other ancient Egyptian goddesses were becoming less popular in many nations. In certain cases, like with her sanctuary at Delos, her temple was not centrally positioned but rather was situated on the outside of the city in a zone designated for foreign deities. 

However, this was not the situation in Pompeii, a significant Roman city close to the port of Ostia, where grain from Egypt often came to feed Rome. Here, on great real land, was the Isis temple. Isis was immensely popular among the Roman aristocracy, and the city of Pompeii and many of its citizens' lives revolved around her temple. 

Processions were a ceremonial component of Isis worship in Pompeii that may have originated in Egyptian ritual. It is difficult to determine where the tradition originated since we know Mesopotamia also used ceremonial processions. 

The massive temple estates constructed in the Egyptian style, however, have vanished, even at Pompeii. Iseums, or temples to Isis on foreign country, were more humble but nevertheless followed many Egyptian customs. They were a subterranean crypt under the surface-level temple building. The crypt was used for rituals, ceremonies, and storage. 

The Nilometer was vital in Egyptian temples because it assessed the life giving water level of the Nile upon which life, fertility, and wealth relied. It was still in use in Pompeii but had been changed to become a more symbolic object. Evidence suggests that several iseums and mansions of the Isian priests, such the one belonged to Loreius Tiburtinus, were built with permanent water channels that may represent the Nile flood waters spilling. 

The usage of holy ritual pitchers and situlas, or sacred pails, may be seen in murals of processions and scenes on temple walls, even if adherents of the faith outside of Egypt progressively lost touch with the ancient meaning of Nile water. 

These probably held Nile water that was transported or utilized in rituals; this would be a more practical method to include the Nile's customary significance during Egyptian worship while distant from the real source. Even though Isis' temple was modest by the standards of a normal contemporary Christian church, it was prominently situated next to a theater, the Forum, and the temple of Asclepius and Neptune in the public square at Pompeii. The temple was located in the middle of the compound's holy quadrangle. There were a number of round columns at ground level in front of the temple. 

There were three additional round columns to the left and right before entering the pronaos, or front hall, which was a little under 98 square feet (30 sq. m) in size as one ascended the seven stairs to the temple proper. The inner chapel, or cella, which was located behind the pronaos, included two pedestals for sculptures of Isis and Serapis. 

The whole structure was covered with paintings that included images of Isis and Io, ritual practitioners, priests, floral trellises, the mummy of Osiris, Anubis, Isis wearing an ankh, Perseus rescuing Andromeda, Mars, and Venus. 

There were several altars and niches as well. The Purgatorium, where the Nile water was kept, was located on ground level only a few meters from the temple. There was a subterranean Megaron or tomb below this, perhaps used for initiations. The Isian priesthood's quarters and the initiates' gathering place were at the back of the temple. 

According to fresco paintings, men and women had equal status in the Isis priesthood. Priests were shown wielding the sistrum, or ancient rattle, and the caduceus, while the priestess was clutching a baton. Both priests and priestesses are shown carrying out religious obligations. 

A cake-carrying priestess with a snake on her head is engraved on a cup, while the priest is seen holding a censer. A other goblet depicts the priestess wielding a sistrum and situla while encircled by a snake. Hydeion, a long-spouted pitcher often used to transport water from the Nile, is being carried by the priest. Stories of other gods and goddesses did not get outside of Egypt as the worship of Isis increased. 

The story of Isis and Osiris persisted outside of Egypt, and via more widely celebrated Isian festivals, the general population was educated about Egyptian practices. One such open-to-the-public event was the Ploiaphesia, also known as the Isidis Navigium or Sailing of the Ship of Isis, which took place on March 5 every year. Although it started in Egypt, this holiday was also celebrated in cities like Pompeii. 

This signaled the start of the sailing season. Large segments of the society, including the Isis priests, took part in the ceremonial procession. Isis, the goddess of the sea, was called upon to provide the sailors and merchants safe passage over the oceans, trade with friendly nations, and return home with the supplies they needed for everyday living.

 The ceremonial ship, known as the Ship of Isis, was sent out to sea as an offering to the Goddess in Pompeii, as in other locations honoring this event, after being laden with gifts and prayers. 

At the beginning of the third century CE, Isis worship peaked. Secret rituals, regular services, and several festivals open to everybody were all part of the cult's secrets. She was revered as a goddess of knowledge who had magical abilities and understanding of the secrets of life and death. As shown by the following inscription from Capua, Una quae es omnia, dea Isis, or "Thou who, being one, art all, Goddess Isis," she came to be seen as the one Goddess by many, broadening the more original Egyptian notion of a transcendent monotheism. 

The worship of Isis in Pompeii gradually and firmly gained hold of the aristocracy until it became the city's semi-official religion, while the cult of Isis developed among the slaves and families of freed men hired by the great mansions of the affluent. In homage to Isis, Roman emperors had sculptures made of themselves dressed in Egyptian garb. Daughters of regular people and prominent government figures dedicated their life to Isis as priestesses. Rich people honored her with shrines in their gardens. We know this because Pompeii was astonishingly well preserved for more than 1,700 years after Mount Vesuvius' explosion on August 24, 79 CE. 

Modern archaeologists excavating the ruins came upon an almost flawlessly preserved window into a historical event. Numerous Goddesses and Divine Feminine temples may be found throughout the enormous metropolis of Pompeii. The Temple of Venus, Temple of Fortuna, and Villa of Mysteries have all undergone excellent restorations. Numerous bright frescoes provide a sense of the creativity and vibrancy of those early times. The bordellos are also fascinating, however there are a lot of depressing small cubicles and phallus symbols that symbolize fertility to be found there. 

How to reach Pompeii. 

The contemporary and welcoming city of Pompei lies next to the ancient city of Pompeii, which is best accessed via a guided trip. However, if one is prepared for the bother of navigating the Italian railroad system, one may also take the public train. The Pompeii-Villa dei Misteri station on the Circumvesuviana is roughly a 30-minute journey from Naples. You are dropped off outside the site's western entrance. The Circumvesuviana to Pompei-Santuario station, which is located at the eastern entrance to the sites, is another option. Daily trains and tours regularly depart from Rome for Pompei; the sight deserves a full day. The facility has a great café where you may get lunch or a refreshing beverage, and the toilets are maintained spotless. Bring a hat, sunscreen, and a guidebook. 

Goddess Worship In Rome.

 It would be hard to choose just one place to worship the goddess throughout the whole city of Rome. How are you going to stop at one? You really can't. Readers will profit from the author's passion for all the locations that are going to be highlighted since so many places scream "Goddess." As tourists discover more than ten attractions in one, prepare to get a little something extra, or lagniappe, as they say in New Orleans! 

Get on board as the bus leaves for a tour of Rome's holy places to the goddess! Starting point: Palatine Hill. The Palatine Hill, next to the Colosseum, previously housed affluent houses in ancient Rome.

The English word "palace" is sprung from the word palatine. There is a lot of history on the Palatine Hill. Roman historians claim that the Emperor Caligula was stabbed here, for example. The Sibyls' decrees that Rome would not be victorious against Hannibal until the Cybele meteorite reached the city led to the construction of the Temple of Cybele, which was consecrated here in 191 BCE. 

The Roman populace delighted in the experience of wild and bizarre celebrations in honor of Cybele when she arrived at Palatine Hill and caused Hannibal to lose. In the years that followed, Rome's conservatives condemned the wild festivals honoring both Cybele and Attis. According to certain ancient authors, the Sibylline On the hill, there were prophetic books, but they were destroyed by fire. 

The renowned playwrights Terence and Plautus debuted several of their most well-known comedies on a wooden stage set up in front of the Temple of Cybele during the yearly theatrical games. Located south of the Farnese Gardens and immediately west of the House of "Livia," this shrine to the Great Mother still has its tufa platform standing. 

The hill is also graced with the foundation of temple stones dedicated to Victory and Victoria Virgo ("Maiden Victory"). The shrine formerly had magnificent flooring made of red and white breccia rosa, pink-grey Chian marble, and black slate, as well as tall, thin Corinthian columns.

A throne in the middle, reclining people holding tympana, and cats on each corner of the triangle made up the pediment's decoration. A headless goddess who had originally been flanked by lions was one among the discoveries at the site. Under the foundation of this temple complex, a tunnel led to the historic Street of Victory. Tertullian (160–225 CE) said that the Magna Mater sanctuary was also located in the center of the renowned Circus Maximus, just below the southern brow of Palatine Hill. An enormous statue of Diana on the spina of this circus, dressed in a mural crown, riding sidesaddle, and flanked by lions, is shown on ancient coins. 

The Palatine Hill is a maze-like complex of ruins honoring several gods and goddesses. The Basilica or Aula of Isis and a Venus Temple may also be found on Palatine Hill. Simply carry a map, since the location is not well-marked and the personnel is not very helpful. 

The Roman Forum is located across the street from Palatine Hill and has several partially preserved Goddess temples, including the Temples of Venus, Vesta, and the House of the Vestals. Vesta might be thought as as Rome's divine soul or the vital feminine flame. Since 575 BCE, votive gifts have been made to Vesta, Goddess of the Hearth. The once circular building is said to be a representation of a prehistoric Latin hut where princesses of prehistoric tribes maintained the tribe's fire. 

The embers of Her temple in Troy were said to have ignited the flames of the Roman Temple of Vesta in antiquity. For one hundred years, temple vestal priestesses were responsible for maintaining the flames of Rome. The Seven Holy of Holies of Rome were safeguarded and maintained by the vestal priestesses. 

The ashes of Orestes, a needle used by the Mother of Gods, the shields of Salii, the 12 Leaping Priests of Mars, the scepter of Priam, and the veil of Ilione were among these holy relics. The Palladium, a wooden statue of Pallas Athena that was thought to have fallen from heaven and been brought to Rome from Troy, was another. 

The Romans believed that the city would suffer if the fires weren't kept going or these artifacts weren't protected. Failure to do these chores may result in flogging, exile, or even death as a punishment. 

Although the word "virgin" goddess is often used to describe an unmarried female who is autonomous and unto herself rather than a chaste condition, virginity was a literal necessity for Vestal Virgins. "Nor will it be said that under (the emperor's) leadership any priestess violated her sacred fillets, and none shall be buried alive in the ground. 

It is thus that an unchaste (Vesta) perishes because that (Earth) which she violated, in that earth she is interred; and indeed Earth and Vesta are the same deity," wrote the ancient writer Ovid of the punishment for a Vestal Virgin who lost her virginity: " Roman society's value of chastity is explained by scholar Miriam Robbins Dexter. 

Chastity was regarded as unchangeable, though they did allow for parthenogenesis, or childbirth through a mother without male involvement. It was the duty of chaste Vestal Virgins to channel their divine energy for the benefit of Rome since they were a reservoir of untapped potential, similar to a charged battery. If a woman was neither virginal nor married, Dexter writes, "she constituted an independent challenge to the patriarchal, patrilinear system. 

In Rome, like in other male-dominated communities, any woman who asserted her own sexual identity was despised and dreaded. Two still-standing temples to the Feminine Divine, the Temples of Vesta and Fortuna, can be found off the beaten path as you move from the Forum toward the Tiber River. The Goddess of Destiny, Fortuna, who is sometimes confused with Isis, is worshipped in a temple that resembles a miniature Parthenon only a few yards from the circular Temple of Vesta. These two Goddess temples in Rome are among the best preserved. 

The circular temple, which was surrounded by Corinthian columns, was only preserved because it was transformed into a church in 1132 CE and given the name "Saint Stephen of the Carriages." The basilica where nuns used to distribute food to the needy is the Church of Santa Maria in Cosmedin, which is located across the street. 

Since the eighth century, the church has been connected to the Greek community in Rome, and the name "Cosmedin" may be a reference to the city of "Constantinople." This building formerly served as a temple for the Roman goddess Ceres, who gave us the term "cereal." Goddess enthusiasts claim that the church, which is said to have a subterranean passageway going to the Temple of Vesta across the street, emanates a noticeable "Goddess energy" that makes it seem cozy, secure, and almost like stepping inside a real Sheila-na-Gig, or womb.

The clean and basic architectural lines of this basilica suggest a mysterious, "out-of-the-way" vibe, almost as if this site was a neglected step-child of the Church, because it lacks the gold plating and crowded façade that often clutter many Christian churches in Europe. 

Large chandeliers with candle holders hang from the ceiling, and the walls are practically bare but for a few faded flower paintings. The noises and hectic energies of the city are believed to vanish as one enters this church's calm, dark, silence, and one may feel the Goddess' presence. Sacred geometry-like symbols are visible in the church's floor design, and some people also perceive the four basic elements and the spirit. An depiction of what looks to be wheat, representing the goddess Ceres, may be seen behind the main altar. 

On April 19, the day of her festival, the Cerealia, she was worshipped in Rome. The Circus Maximus, which is close to Palatine Hill, also hosted celebrations for her. Rufus and Lawson claim that it seems like a portion of the old Ceres temple is still there in the church, but hidden from view. San Nicola in Carcere, which is situated right across from Tiber Island and not far from Santa Maria in Cosmedin, is definitely worth a visit if travelers have the time. On the site of the Juno Sospita temple lies this 11th-century church (the Savior). 

On the south side of the temple from the first century BCE, seven of the original columns still stand, together with a portion of the entablature above them. The ancient pedestal, where Juno Sospita was hailed as a warrior goddess, is in superb shape. 

The Temple of Juno Regina was the most well-known sanctuary devoted to Goddess in Rome, roughly located where Santa Sabina is now (as confirmed by two dedicatory inscriptions found nearby). The antique wooden statue was transferred to this location on Aventine Hill by the Roman ruler Furius Camillus after the fall of the last Etruscan fortress of Veii in 396 BCE. 

Two sculptures of Juno Regina made of cypress wood were were erected at the temple in 207 BCE. Juno Regina is often seen next to Jupiter on coins, wielding a long scepter and patera. She typically appears as a queen with a veil, a diadem, and a peacock at her side. 

The majority of her gifts were made by women, including a bronze figure and a golden bowl in 218 BCE (in 207 BCE). Her direct affiliation with Diana, the Goddess of the Moon and Hunt, which was undoubtedly inspired by her Etruscan origins, was peculiar to Juno Regina on the Aventine hill. 

Because of this, Diana was transformed into Juno's hostess and the goddess in charge of the asylum (a role that was alien to the Latin Diana but not to the Diana/Artemis of Asia Minor). Meanwhile, Juno herself becomes a rescuer and a protector via this relationship. 

The little Santa Sabina Church was built here in 422 CE, but the majority of magnificent basilica, with its lovely white Corinthian columns along the nave, is from the ninth century. In the 13th century, the church was taken over by the Dominicans. Without seeing Santa Maria Maggiore, the magnificent church honoring Mary as the "Mother of God," no journey to Rome is complete.

Legend has it that the Virgin Mary visited Pope Liberius and told him to erect a church exactly where he saw a spot of snow the following day. It was considered a wonder when he discovered snow at the top of the Esquiline Hill the next morning (August 5th), given that Rome was now going through one of their normal scorching summers. 

Each year, thousands of white petals are released from the church's roof to "snow" on the waiting crowd as a way of remembering this occasion. These were were rose petals, but they are now often dahlia petals. Pope Sixtus III (reigned from 431-440 CE) erected a new basilica there after the church council in Ephesus in 431, during which Mary was acknowledged as bearing God (theotokos). 

This basilica dates back to the fifth century and has a triple nave. The Virgin Mary is the subject of the majority of the mosaics in the apse, which were created by Jacopo Toritti circa 1295. His obsession with natural themes—birds nesting, flowers blooming, animals crawling, and an abundance of lush vegetation—is peculiar. A medallion showing the Coronation of Mary by Christ amid a canopy of golden stars sits in the middle of this cornucopia of natural beauty. 

The Temple of Juno Lucina was located on the minor Cispian Hill, just to the north of Santa Maria Maggiore on the Esquiline Hill. At once a holy forest, the precinct ultimately acquired a temple consecrated in 375 BCE. Two old lotus trees that were in the gardens before the temple, according to Pliny the Elder, were revered there. 

The Feast of the Matronalia was observed here on March 1st. On this day, all wives were expected to receive gifts from their husbands. Although Juno Lucina was strongly linked to a birth cult, nothing more is known about her. Some even believe that Hallmark invented Mother's Day! 

The Church of Santa Maria in Aracoli, which is located on a historic location that was formerly a temple to Juno Moneta and Cybele, has several goddess emblems. On the marble floor is a bull (associated with Osiris and Adonis) crowned with a star, and three bees are depicted in stained glass high up on the church's entrance wall. 

Bees were connected to Cybele, Persephone, Demeter, and Artemis, and the number three was considered sacred. Demeter's priestesses were also referred to as melissae, or bees. During the Roman ruler Furius Camillus's battle with Aurunci in 345 BCE, he made a promise to erect the Temple of Juno Moneta in her honor. It was finally completed the following year on June 1st. In 273 BCE, a mint was erected within the temple, hence the epithet "Moneta." 

The future Roman Emperor Octavian, also known as Augustus, is said to have seen an appearance of a "beautiful lady" here who requested that he construct a shrine for her, according to Anneli Rufus and Kristan Lawson. And the rest is history, as he did. Later on, Augustus had unparalleled success and power. Even though the vision occurred prior to the birth of Jesus, the Church later asserted that the woman he saw was the Virgin Mary. 

A chapel dedicated to the Christ child is located within the church. On the altar, there are cards and letters from devoted people pleading for their requests to be granted. Goddess worshipers who enter the church believe that the Christ is Horus, the son of Isis, or a young Attis, the son of Cybele, who once had a temple here. In the late 13th century, the entire church façade was rebuilt, and in 1348, the grand steps in front of the basilica were constructed as a gesture of thanks for averting a terrible plague. 

There are 22 antique columns on each side of the nave, some of which were carved from Aswan granite. The renowned graded ramp going up to the Piazza del Campidoglio, located at the top of the old Capitoline Hill and previously dominated by a large temple devoted to Jupiter, is located just to the south of the stairs leading to the Church of Santa Maria in Aracoli. 

Two black granite crouching lions that stand up at the foot of this ramp from the sixteenth century are of great importance. The two lions were brought to Rome by the emperor Domitian (81-96 CE) to be used as decorations for the Temple of Isis on the Field of Mars. 

They were originally from Egypt and may date to the 4th or 3rd century BCE. Both the ordinary people and the aristocracy in Rome maintained a fervent devotion to the Egyptian goddess Isis. She was so admired that there was some debate as to whether the Isian faith or Christianity would become the dominant religion for a while. 

Several factors contributed to Isis' appeal. Her success was mostly due to her accessibility, but her Egyptian riddles also promised immortality beyond death. Instead of being seen as a hostile and distant masculine deity, her attributes as a strong mother and wife who had experienced adversity in her life alongside those of her devotees led her followers to think that she would empathize with them and hear their pleas. Emperor Domitian, who constructed Isis temples and shrines in and around Rome, was a significant Isis admirer. In about the location of the present-day Piazza del Collegio Romano, Domitian constructed an Iseum of Isis because he was preoccupied with his own afterlife disposition. 

Three obelisks from the Iseum Campestre, which was once as significant as Saint Peter's Basilica, may be seen at Piazza della Rotunda in front of the Pantheon, Piazza Navona, and Piazza della Minerva on top of an elephant. In the Piazza della Minerva, an obelisk on an elephant dates back to the year 6 BCE. Interestingly, a Christian cross is perched atop every obelisk, including the one in Saint Peter's Square in the Vatican. Since there is no official explanation for the placement of these crosses, some have speculated that it represents Christianity's ambition to symbolically dominate paganism. 

There is still an Iseum Campestre of Isis and a Temple of Minerva beneath the Santa Maria Sopra Minerva and Saint Ignazio churches. Ironically, this Mary-focused church still uses the name of the goddess who was once worshipped there. 

Domitian reconstructed the Temple of Isis after the fire of 80 CE, and it is said that Alexander Severus magnificently decorated it with sculptures. The Temple of Isis once stood where the Jesuit Saint Ignazio currently stands (222-235 CE). Four Corinthian columns supported a facade of stairs leading up to the main entrance, which was topped by a deep lunate pediment with a statue of Isis Sothis perched on a dog that was running to the right. 

A standing figure of Isis may be seen within the inner shrine. The Serapeum, or Temple of Serapis, her spouse, stood near by and was situated immediately beyond a wide gateway split into bays by three columns. 

The Serapeum was a distinct structure that was rectangular in design and had grand entrances along the square where the Temple of Minerva had stood. The Serapis temple's hallowed area was referred as as the libertines' hangout. A huge marble foot may be seen near the intersection of Via S. Stefano del Cacco to the right of the church if one makes a small detour along Via del Pie' di Marmo. It is believed that this sandaled foot belonged to the adjacent Iseum or Serapeum and may have even belonged to Serapis.

The Isis religion was well-established in Rome by the reign of Caligula, despite efforts to suppress it by earlier rulers including Augustus, Agrippa, and Tiberius. Although it is difficult to confirm, Tiberius is said to have taken a picture of Isis and thrown it into the Tiber River. Isis rose to become a worldwide deity revered by those who cherished their Mistress of Magic and Wisdom and were seen as their rescuer. 

Te Isis, te salus ad tuos, which translates to "Thou Isis, thou art salvation to thy followers," was written on a graffito from an Isian shrine in Rome. A sensation of Isis' scarlet chord of life linking them to the web of life and her devotion, past and present, close and distant, is reported by modern Isis devotees who travel the same winding stone alleys that ancient devotees did centuries before. 

The Vatican Museum should not be missed because of all the rumors and gossip regarding what could be kept in the vaults. Goddess artifacts are so numerous and diverse that they are almost as delicious as going to the Louvre in Paris. 

The tourist will find hundreds of sculptures of Asian, Greek, and Roman goddesses as well as paintings in the Borgia Apartments dedicated to the Goddess Isis. Particularly lovely is the Egyptian exhibit, which has one-of-a-kind statues not present in other museums. Sekhmet sculptures in a seated position may be seen in outdoor gardens and carelessly positioned in front of gift stores. 

How to Get to the Goddess Sites in Rome. 

It's simple to get about Rome. Non-tourists may use the subway, which makes stops at important landmarks and popular tourist attractions, many of which were previously mentioned. For instance, the Coliseum station makes it simple to reach Palatine Hill and the Roman Forum. 

With the right footwear and a decent map, pilgrims may easily navigate the city on foot. Keep an eye out for pickpockets. It is advised that travelers allot a whole day to the Forum, Palatine Hill, as well as the close-by Temples of Vesta, Fortuna, and the Church of Santa Maria in Cosmedin, all of which are accessible on foot. A whole day is also easily need to see the Vatican Museum. The historic city of Ostia Antica, Tivoli Gardens, and the Villa of Hadrian are a few quick and advised day trips outside of Rome if time permits. All three have links to goddesses.

~Kiran Atma

You may also want to discover and learn more about Female Divinities of the Roman empire here.